The Concept of Commons
The concept of commons refers to shared resources that are available to everyone in a community. These resources can be natural, such as land, water, and forests, or cultural, such as knowledge, traditions, and social practices. The idea of commons has existed for thousands of years and has played an important role in shaping human societies. Throughout history, commons have been used as a means of survival, a source of identity, and a way of organizing social relations. However, the fate of commons has been far from stable. Many have been destroyed or privatized, while others have been preserved or reinvented in new forms. In this article, we will trace the trajectory of commons through time, from ancient to enclosure, and explore the challenges and opportunities they face in the present and future.
The Origins of Commons in Ancient Times
The origins of commons can be traced back to the earliest human societies, where people lived in small groups and relied on natural resources for their survival. In hunter-gatherer societies, for example, the land was considered a common resource that everyone had the right to use. The same was true for water, game, and other natural resources. However, as societies became more complex and stratified, the concept of commons became more contested. In some cases, elites began to claim ownership of the land and resources, while others fought to defend their traditional rights and practices.
Medieval Commons and the Rise of Feudalism
The medieval period saw the rise of feudalism, a system of social and economic organization that was based on the ownership of land. In this system, the king owned all the land, which was then granted to lords and knights, who in turn granted it to their vassals in exchange for military service. However, there were also vast areas of land that were considered commons, such as forests, meadows, and pastures. These commons were used by peasants and villagers for grazing their animals, gathering firewood, and other subsistence activities. The management of these commons was often regulated by local customs and traditions, which helped to maintain a sense of community and shared responsibility.
Enclosure of Commons in the Agrarian Revolution
The enclosure of commons in England in the 16th and 17th centuries marked a turning point in the history of commons. Enclosure involved the privatization of land that was previously held in common, often by force. This process was driven by a combination of economic, political, and social factors, including the rise of capitalism, the growth of agricultural productivity, and the desire of landlords to increase their profits. As a result of enclosure, millions of people lost their access to common resources and were forced to migrate to cities or become wage laborers.
The Impact of Industrialization on Commons
The industrial revolution of the 18th and 19th centuries brought about a new phase in the history of commons. Industrialization led to the creation of new commons, such as public parks, libraries, and museums, which were made possible by the wealth generated by capitalist production. However, industrialization also had a negative impact on existing commons, such as the air, water, and soil, which were polluted and degraded by industrial processes. This led to a growing awareness of the need to protect the environment and to regulate the use of common resources.
Commons in the Age of Imperialism
The age of imperialism in the 19th and early 20th centuries saw the expansion of European powers into other parts of the world, and the imposition of their economic, political, and cultural systems. This often involved the destruction of traditional commons, such as communal lands, forests, and fisheries, which were seen as obstacles to capitalist development. In many parts of the world, indigenous peoples were forced to abandon their traditional ways of life and to become wage laborers or peasants. However, resistance to imperialism also led to the emergence of new forms of commonality, such as national liberation movements, labor unions, and social movements.
The Rise of Private Property and the End of Commons
The rise of private property in the 20th century signaled the beginning of the end of commons as a widespread social phenomenon. The growth of capitalism and the spread of neoliberal ideology led to the privatization of public goods, the dismantling of social welfare systems, and the erosion of collective values. This process was accompanied by the erosion of traditional forms of commonality, such as community, family, and culture, which were replaced by individualism, consumerism, and competition. The result was a profound sense of alienation and disconnection from each other and from the natural world.
The Modern Commons Movement
The modern commons movement emerged in the late 20th century as a response to the crisis of social and environmental degradation caused by neoliberal capitalism. The movement seeks to reclaim common resources and to establish new forms of commonality based on participatory democracy, ecological sustainability, and social justice. The movement has taken many forms, from the global justice movement to the environmental movement to the digital commons movement. However, all share a common commitment to the values of solidarity, cooperation, and mutual aid.
The Global Commons and Environmental Challenges
The concept of global commons refers to resources that are shared by all people and nations, such as the atmosphere, oceans, and outer space. These commons are subject to a range of environmental challenges, such as climate change, ocean acidification, and biodiversity loss, which threaten the survival of human and non-human life on earth. The governance of global commons is a complex and contested issue, with different actors advocating for different approaches, from market-based solutions to UN-led treaties to grassroots mobilization. However, all recognize the urgent need for collective action to address these challenges.
Conclusion: The Future of Commons
The future of commons is uncertain, but also full of possibilities. The challenges of climate change, inequality, and political instability require new forms of commonality that can transcend national borders and build more resilient and sustainable communities. The commons movement offers a powerful vision of a world based on cooperation, sharing, and mutual support, in which all people have access to the resources they need to thrive. However, this vision can only be realized through collective action and social transformation. The fate of commons is in our hands, and the choices we make today will determine the legacy we leave for future generations.